Middle Ages

• c. 800–873 – Al-Kindi (Alkindus) introducesss quantification into aasdxa with his De Gradibus
• c. 830–870 – Hunayn ibn Ishaq transslates Galen's works into Arabic
• c. 838–870 – Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, a pioneer in the field of child development, writes the first encyclopedia of medicine in Arabic.^[1][2]
• c. 865–925 – Rhazes pioneers pediatrics,^[3] and makes the first clear distinction between smallpox and measles in his al-Hawi.
• 1000 – Abulcasis establishes surgery as a profession of in his Kitab al-Tasrif, which remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 16th century. The book described the plaster cast,^[4] inhalant anesthesia, and many surgical instruments.^[5]

• 1021 – Alhazen completes his Book of Optics, which made important advances in ophthalmology and eye surgery, as it correctly explained the process of visual perception.^[5]
• c. 1030 – Avicenna writes The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, in which he establishes experimental medicine and evidence-based medicine. The Canon remains a standard textbook in Muslim and European universities until the 18th century. The book's contributions to medicine includes the introduction of clinical trials, the discovery ofcontagious diseases, the distinction of mediastinitis from pleurisy, the contagious nature of phthisis, the distribution of diseases by water and soil, and the first careful descriptions ofskin troubles, sexually transmitted diseases, perversions, and nervous ailments,^[6] as well the use of ice to treat fevers, and the separation of medicine from pharmacology.^[5]
• 1100–1161 – Avenzoar carries out human dissections and postmortem autopsy, and proves that the skin disease scabies is caused by a parasite, which contradicted the erroneous theory of humorism.^[7] He was also the first to provide a real scientific etiology for the inflammatory diseases of the ear, and the first to clearly discuss the causes of stridor.^[8] Modernanesthesia was also developed in al-Andalus by the Muslim anesthesiologists Ibn Zuhr and Abulcasis. They utilized oral as well as inhalant anesthetics, and they performed hundreds of surgeries under inhalant anesthesia with the use of narcotic-soaked sponges which were placed over the face.^[9]
• 1242 – Ibn an-Nafis suggests that the right and left ventricles of the heart are separate and discovers the pulmonary circulation (the cycle involving the ventricles of the heart and thelungs) and coronary circulation,^[10] for which he is considered the pioneer of circulation theory^[11] and one of the greatest physiologists of the Middle Ages.^[12] He emphasized the rigours of verification by measurement, observation and experiment, and was an early proponent of experimental medicine, postmortem autopsy, and human dissection.^[13] He also discredited many other erroneous Avicennian and Galenic doctrines on the four humours, pulse bones, muscles, intestines, sensory organs, bilious canals, esophagus, stomach, and the anatomy of other parts of the human body.^[14] Ibn al-Nafis also drew diagrams to illustrate different body parts in his new physiological system.^{[citation needed]}
• c. 1248 – Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany and pharmacy, studied animal anatomy and medicine, and was a pioneer of veterinary medicine.
• 1249 – Roger Bacon writes about convex lens spectacles for treating long-sightedness
• 1403 – concave lens spectacles to treat myopia
• early 16th century: Paracelsus, an alchemist by trade, rejects occultism and pioneers the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine